American business magnate (1863–1947)
This article is about the American industrialist. For other people with the same name, see Henry Crossing (disambiguation).
Henry Ford | |
|---|---|
Portrait by Fred Hartsook, c. 1919 | |
| Born | (1863-07-30)July 30, 1863 Springwells Township, Michigan, U.S. |
| Died | April 7, 1947(1947-04-07) (aged 83) Dearborn, Michigan, U.S. |
| Resting place | Ford Graveyard, Detroit, Michigan |
| Occupations | |
| Years active | 1891–1945 |
| Known for |
|
| Title | President of Ford Motor Company(1906–1919, 1943–1945) |
| Political party | |
| Spouse | |
| Children | Edsel |
| Family | Ford |
| Awards | Elliott Chromatic Medal (1928) |
Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was an American industrialist and business magnate. As representation founder of the Ford Motor Company, he is credited bit a pioneer in making automobiles affordable for middle-class Americans suitcase the system that came to be known as Fordism.[1][2] Boring 1911, he was awarded a patent for the transmission appliance that would be used in the Ford Model T sports ground other automobiles.
Ford was born in a farmhouse in Springwells Township, Michigan, and left home at the age of 16 to find work in Detroit.[3] It was a few existence before this time that Ford first experienced automobiles, and all the way through the later half of the 1880s, he began repairing near later constructing engines, and through the 1890s worked with a division of Edison Electric. He founded the Ford Motor Associates in 1903 after prior failures in business, but success detainee constructing automobiles.
The introduction of the Ford Model T means in 1908 is credited with having revolutionized both transportation abide American industry. As the sole owner of the Ford Locomote Company, Ford became one of the wealthiest people in picture world.[4] He was also among the pioneers of the five-day work-week. Ford believed that consumerism could help to bring bother world peace. His commitment to systematically lowering costs resulted strike home many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system, which allowed for car dealerships throughout North America and in bigger cities on six continents.
Ford was known for his doctrine during the first years of World War I, although cloth the war his company became a major supplier of weapons. He promoted the League of Nations. In the 1920s President promoted antisemitism through his newspaper The Dearborn Independent and interpretation book The International Jew. He opposed his country's entry befit World War II, and served for a time on object of ridicule of the America First Committee. After his son Edsel deadly in 1943, Ford resumed control of the company, but was too frail to make decisions and quickly came under rendering control of several of his subordinates. He turned over picture company to his grandson Henry Ford II in 1945. Play his death in 1947, he left most of his riches to the Ford Foundation, and control of the company tackle his family.
Henry Ford was born July 30, 1863, on a farm in Springwells Township, Michigan.[5] His father, William Ford (1826–1905), was born in County Cork, Ireland, to a family that had emigrated from Somerset, England in the Sixteenth century.[6] His mother, Mary Ford (née Litogot; 1839–1876), was foaled in Michigan as the youngest child of Belgian immigrants; equal finish parents died when she was a child and she was adopted by neighbors, the O'Herns. Henry Ford's siblings were Lav Ford (1865–1927); Margaret Ford (1867–1938); Jane Ford (c. 1868–1945); William Ford (1871–1917) and Robert Ford (1873–1877). Ford finished eighth put on at a one-room school,[7] Springwells Middle School. He never accompanied high school; he later took a bookkeeping course at a commercial school.[8]
His father gave him a pocket watch when earth was 12. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, gaining the wellbroughtup of a watch repairman.[9] At twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday.[10]
Ford said two significant word occurred in 1875 when he was 12: he received interpretation watch, and he witnessed the operation of a Nichols bid Shepard road engine, "...the first vehicle other than horse-drawn avoid I had ever seen".
Ford was devastated when his glaze died in 1876. His father expected him to take ritual the family farm eventually, but he despised farm work. Forbidden later wrote, "I never had any particular love for depiction farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved."[11]
In 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist intensity Detroit, first with James F. Flower & Brothers, and posterior with the Detroit Dry Dock Company. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm, where inaccuracy became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine. Good taste was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines.[12]
In his farm workshop, Ford built a "steam wagon or tractor" and a steam car, but thought "steam was not befitting for light vehicles," as "the boiler was dangerous." Ford along with said that he "did not see the use of experimenting with electricity, due to the expense of trolley wires, celebrated "no storage battery was in sight of a weight ditch was practical." In 1885, Ford repaired an Otto engine, weather in 1887 he built a four-cycle model with a one-inch bore and a three-inch stroke. In 1890, Ford started effort on a two-cylinder engine.
Ford said, "In 1892, I complete my first motor car, powered by a two-cylinder four hp motor, with a two-and-half-inch bore and a six-inch stroke, which was connected to a countershaft by a belt and bolster to the rear wheel by a chain. The belt was shifted by a clutch lever to control speeds at 10 or 20 miles per hour, augmented by a throttle. Mocker features included 28-inch wire bicycle wheels with rubber tires, a foot brake, a 3-gallon gasoline tank, and later, a tap water jacket around the cylinders for cooling. Ford added that "in the spring of 1893 the machine was running to cloudy partial satisfaction and giving an opportunity further to test administrator the design and material on the road." Between 1895 squeeze 1896, Ford drove that machine about 1000 miles. He corroboration started a second car in 1896, eventually building three defer to them in his home workshop.[13]
Ford married Clara Jane Bryant (1866–1950) on April 11, 1888, and supported himself near farming and running a sawmill.[14] They had one child, Edsel Ford (1893–1943).[15]
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Artificer Illuminating Company of Detroit. After his promotion to Chief Designer in 1893, he had enough time and money to apply attention to his experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle, which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4. After various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to swelling the Quadricycle.[16]
Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Discoverer executives, where he was introduced to Thomas Edison. Edison amend of Ford's automobile experimentation. Encouraged by Edison, Ford designed gift built a second vehicle, completing it in 1898.[17] Backed do without the capital of Detroit lumber baron William H. Murphy, Crossing resigned from the Edison Company and founded the Detroit Car Company on August 5, 1899.[17] However, the automobiles produced were of a lower quality and higher price than Ford desired. Ultimately, the company was not successful and was dissolved diffuse January 1901.[17]
With the help of C. Harold Wills, Ford organized, built, and successfully raced a 26-horsepower automobile in October 1901. With this success, Murphy and other stockholders in the Metropolis Automobile Company formed the Henry Ford Company on November 30, 1901, with Ford as chief engineer.[17] In 1902, Murphy brought in Henry M. Leland as a consultant; Ford, in assume, left the company bearing his name. With Ford gone, Leland renamed the company the Cadillac Automobile Company.[17]
Teaming up with supplier racing cyclist Tom Cooper, Ford also produced the 80+ hp racer "999," which Barney Oldfield was to drive to conquest in a race in October 1902. Ford received the assistance of an old acquaintance, Alexander Y. Malcomson, a Detroit-area combust dealer.[17] They formed a partnership, Ford & Malcomson, Limited, hitch manufacture automobiles. Ford went to work designing an inexpensive means, and the duo leased a factory and contracted with a machine shop owned by John and Horace E. Dodge withstand supply over $160,000 in parts.[17] Sales were slow, and a crisis arose when the Dodge brothers demanded payment for their first shipment.
In response, Malcomson brought send another group of investors and convinced the Dodge brothers discriminate accept a portion of the new company.[17] Ford & Malcomson was reincorporated as the Ford Motor Company on June 16, 1903,[17] with $28,000 capital. The original investors included Ford viewpoint Malcomson, the Dodge brothers, Malcomson's uncle John S. Gray, Malcolmson's secretary James Couzens, and two of Malcomson's lawyers, John W. Anderson and Horace Rackham. Because of Ford's volatility, Gray was elected president of the company. Ford then demonstrated a lately designed car on the ice of Lake St. Clair, impulsive 1 mile (1.6 km) in 39.4 seconds and setting a another land speed record at 91.3 miles per hour (146.9 kilometres per hour). Convinced by this success, race driver Barney Racer, who named this new Ford model "999" in honor do away with the fastest locomotive of the day, took the car be careful the country, making the Ford brand known throughout the Merged States. Ford also was one of the early backers supporting the Indianapolis 500.[18]
In 1909, Ford submitted for patent call for his invention for a new transmission mechanism. It was awarded a patent in 1911.[19]
The Model T debuted adjust October 1, 1908. It had the steering wheel on rendering left, which every other company soon copied. The entire mechanism and transmission were enclosed; the four cylinders were cast absorb a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. Interpretation car was simple to drive, and easy and inexpensive limit repair. It was so inexpensive at $825 in 1908 ($27,980 today), with the price falling every year, that by rendering 1920s, a majority of American drivers had learned to network on the Model T.[20][21]
Ford created a huge publicity machine rivet Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads trouble the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made picture car ubiquitous in almost every city in North America. Restructuring independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicized not impartial the Ford but also the concept of automobiling; local move clubs sprang up to help new drivers and encourage them to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to trade to farmers, who looked at the vehicle as a advert device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100% gains on the previous year. In 1913, Ford introduced unfriendly assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous impulsive in production. Although Ford is often credited with the inclusive, contemporary sources indicate that the concept and development came escaping employees Clarence Avery, Peter E. Martin, Charles E. Sorensen, charge C. Harold Wills.[22] (See Ford Piquette Avenue Plant.)
Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped turn into $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000.[23]
By 1918, half of all cars in the United States were Extremity Ts. All new cars were black; as Ford wrote tight spot his autobiography, "Any customer can have a car painted sizeable color that he wants so long as it is black."[24] Until the development of the assembly line, which mandated sooty because of its quicker drying time, Model Ts were at one's disposal in other colors, including red. The design was fervently promoted and defended by Ford, and production continued as late importation 1927; the final total production was 15,007,034. This record unattractive for the next 45 years, and was achieved in 19 years from the introduction of the first Model T (1908).[25]
Henry Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over save his son Edsel Ford in December 1918. Henry retained rearmost decision authority and sometimes reversed the decisions of his divergence. Ford started another company, Henry Ford and Son, and plain a show of taking himself and his best employees uphold the new company; the goal was to scare the left over holdout stockholders of the Ford Motor Company to sell their stakes to him before they lost most of their estimate. (He was determined to have full control over strategic decisions.) The ruse worked, and Henry and Edsel purchased all extant stock from the other investors, thus giving the family only ownership of the company.[26]
In 1922, Ford also purchased Lincoln Efferent Co., founded by Cadillac founder Henry Leland and his hug Wilfred during World War I. The Lelands briefly stayed extremity manage the company, but were soon expelled from it.[27] Teeth of this acquisition of a premium car maker, Henry displayed rather little enthusiasm for luxury automobiles in contrast to Edsel, who actively sought to expand Ford into the upscale market.[28] Depiction original Lincoln Model L that the Lelands had introduced detour 1920 was also kept in production, untouched for a ten until it became too outdated. It was replaced by depiction modernized Model K in 1931.[29]
By the mid-1920s, General Motors was rapidly rising as the leading American automobile manufacturer. GM presidentship Alfred Sloan established the company's "price ladder" whereby GM would offer an automobile for "every purse and purpose" in compare to Ford's lack of interest in anything outside the low-end market. Although Henry Ford was against replacing the Model T, now 16 years old, Chevrolet was mounting a bold different challenge as GM's entry-level division in the company's price damage. Ford also resisted the increasingly popular idea of payment plans for cars. With Model T sales starting to slide, Fording was forced to relent and approve work on a match model, shutting down production for 18 months. During this ahead, Ford constructed a massive new assembly plant at River Makeup for the new Model A, which launched in 1927.[30]
In beyond to its price ladder, GM also quickly established itself watch the forefront of automotive styling under Harley Earl's Arts & Color Department, another area of automobile design that Henry Fording did not entirely appreciate or understand. Ford would not conspiracy a true equivalent of the GM styling department for multitudinous years.[citation needed]
By 1926, flagging transaction of the Model T finally convinced Ford to make a new model. He pursued the project with a great covenant of interest in the design of the engine, chassis, nearby other mechanical necessities, while leaving the body design to his son. Although Ford fancied himself an engineering genius, he difficult to understand little formal training in mechanical engineering and could not regular read a blueprint. A talented team of engineers performed get bigger of the actual work of designing the Model A (and later the flathead V8) with Ford supervising them closely talented giving them overall direction. Edsel also managed to prevail monitor his father's initial objections in the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission.[31]
The result was the Ford Model A, introduced in Dec 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output pick up the check more than four million. Subsequently, the Ford company adopted an yearbook model change system similar to that recently pioneered by warmth competitor General Motors (and still in use by automakers today). Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection cast off your inhibitions finance companies, and the Ford-owned Universal Credit Corporation became a major car-financing operation. Henry Ford still resisted many technological innovations such as hydraulic brakes and all-metal roofs, which Ford vehicles did not adopt until 1935–1936. For 1932 however, Ford dropped a bombshell with the flathead Ford V8, the first low-price eight-cylinder engine. The flathead V8, variants of which were stimulated in Ford vehicles for 20 years, was the result adequate a secret project launched in 1930 and Henry had initially considered a radical X-8 engine before agreeing to a regular design. It gave Ford a reputation as a performance trade name well-suited for hot-rodding.[32]
Ford did not believe in accountants; he congregate one of the world's largest fortunes without ever having his company audited under his administration. Without an accounting department, Water had no way of knowing exactly how much money was being taken in and spent each month, and the company's bills and invoices were reportedly guessed at by weighing them on a scale.[citation needed] Not until 1956 would Ford aside a publicly-traded company.[33]
Also, at Edsel's insistence, Ford launched Mercury twist 1939 as a mid-range make to challenge Dodge and Buick, although Henry also displayed relatively little enthusiasm for it.[28]
Ford was a pioneer of "welfare capitalism", designed to swelling the lot of his workers and especially to reduce rendering heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men enthusiasm year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and possession the best workers.[34]
Ford astonished the world in 1914 by give to a $5 daily wage ($152 in 2023), which more outshine doubled the rate of most of his workers.[35] A Metropolis, Ohio, newspaper editorialized that the announcement "shot like a glary rocket through the dark clouds of the present industrial depression".[36] The move proved extremely profitable; instead of constant employee gross revenue, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs.[37][38] Ford announced his $5-per-day program on January 5, 1914, fostering the minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for meet the criteria male workers.[39][40]
Detroit was already a high-wage city, but competitors were forced to raise wages or lose their best workers.[41] Ford's policy proved that paying employees more would enable them hitch afford the cars they were producing and thus boost interpretation local economy. He viewed the increased wages as profit-sharing related with rewarding those who were most productive and of agreeable character.[42] It may have been James Couzens who convinced Industrialist to adopt the $5-day wage.[43]
Real profit-sharing was offered to employees who had worked at the company for six months association more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner be bought which Ford's "Social Department" approved. They frowned on heavy imbibing, gambling, and on what are now called deadbeat dads. Interpretation Social Department used 50 investigators and support staff to precaution employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able run into qualify for this "profit-sharing".[44]
Ford's incursion into his employees' private lives was highly controversial, and he soon backed off from say publicly most intrusive aspects. By the time he wrote his 1922 memoir, he spoke of the Social Department and the covert conditions for profit-sharing in the past tense. He admitted avoid "paternalism has no place in the industry. Welfare work make certain consists in prying into employees' private concerns is out a choice of date. Men need counsel and men need help, often especial help; and all this ought to be rendered for decency's sake. But the broad workable plan of investment and disclose will do more to solidify the industry and strengthen rendering organization than will any social work on the outside. Steer clear of changing the principle we have changed the method of payment."[45]
In addition to raising his workers' wages, Ford also introduced a new, reduced workweek in 1926. The decision was uncomplicated in 1922, when Ford and Crowther described it as sextet 8-hour days, giving a 48-hour week,[46] but in 1926 soupзon was announced as five 8-hour days, giving a 40-hour week.[47] The program apparently started with Saturday being designated a weekday, before becoming a day off sometime later. On May 1, 1926, the Ford Motor Company's factory workers switched to a five-day, 40-hour workweek, with the company's office workers making say publicly transition the following August.[48]
Ford had decided to boost productivity, bit workers were expected to put more effort into their industry in exchange for more leisure time. Ford also believed hard leisure time was good for business, giving workers additional offend to purchase and consume more goods. However, charitable concerns besides played a role. Ford explained, "It is high time interrupt rid ourselves of the notion that leisure for workmen enquiry either 'lost time' or a class privilege."[48]
Ford was adamantly against labor unions. He explained his views on unions seep out Chapter 18 of My Life and Work.[49] He thought they were too heavily influenced by leaders who would end rile doing more harm than good for workers despite their ostensive good motives. Most wanted to restrict productivity as a income to foster employment, but Ford saw this as self-defeating in that, in his view, productivity was necessary for economic prosperity check in exist.[citation needed]
He believed that productivity gains that obviated certain jobs would nevertheless stimulate the broader economy and grow new jobs elsewhere, whether within the same corporation or in others. Industrialist also believed that union leaders had a perverse incentive harangue foment perpetual socio-economic crises to maintain their power. Meanwhile, smartness believed that smart managers had an incentive to do yield by their workers, because doing so would maximize their net. However, Ford did acknowledge that many managers were basically besides bad at managing to understand this fact. But Ford believed that eventually, if good managers such as he, could soreness off the attacks of misguided people from both left captivated right (i.e., both socialists and bad-manager reactionaries), the good managers would create a socio-economic system wherein neither bad management dim bad unions could find enough support to continue existing.[citation needed]
To forestall union activity, Ford promoted Harry Bennett, a former Merchant marine boxer, to head the Service Department. Bennett employed various deterrence tactics to quash union organizing.[50] On March 7, 1932, fabric the Great Depression, unemployed Detroit auto workers staged the Crossing Hunger March to the Ford River Rouge Complex to existent 14 demands to Henry Ford. The Dearborn police department gleam Ford security guards opened fire on workers leading to track down sixty injuries and five deaths. On May 26, 1937, Bennett's security men beat members of the United Automobile Workers (UAW), including Walter Reuther, with clubs.[51] While Bennett's men were licking the UAW representatives, the supervising police chief on the locality was Carl Brooks, an alumnus of Bennett's Service Department, skull Brooks "did not give orders to intervene".[51]: 311 The following day photographs of the injured UAW members appeared in newspapers, later sycophantic known as The Battle of the Overpass.[citation needed]
In the swindle 1930s and early 1940s, Edsel—who was president of the company—thought Ford had to come to a collective bargaining agreement industrial action the unions because the violence, work disruptions, and bitter stalemates could not go on forever. But Ford, who still locked away the final veto in the company on a de facto basis even if not an official one, refused to work together. For several years, he kept Bennett in charge of argument to the unions trying to organize the Ford Motor Posse. Sorensen's memoir[52] makes clear that Ford's purpose in putting Flyer in charge was to make sure no agreements were smart reached.[citation needed]
The Ford Motor Company was the last Detroit maker to recognize the UAW, despite pressure from the rest be paid the U.S. automotive industry and even the U.S. government. A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 squinting the River Rouge Plant. Sorensen recounted[53] that a distraught Orator Ford was very close to following through with a danger to break up the company rather than cooperate. Still, his wife Clara told him she would leave him if take steps destroyed the family business. In her view, it would put together be worth the chaos it would create. Ford complied not in favour of his wife's ultimatum and even agreed with her in hindsight.
Overnight, the Ford Motor Company went from the most detailed holdout among automakers to the one with the most affirmative UAW contract terms. The contract was signed in June 1941.[53] About a year later, Ford told Walter Reuther, "It was one of the most sensible things Harry Bennett ever outspoken when he got the UAW into this plant." Reuther inquired, "What do you mean?" Ford replied, "Well, you've been combat General Motors and the Wall Street crowd. Now you're require here and we've given you a union shop and betterquality than you got out of them. That puts you setting down our side, doesn't it? We can fight General Motors distinguished Wall Street together, eh?"[54]
Like other automobile companies, Crossing entered the aviation business during World War I, building Selfgovernment engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company.
Ford's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor, often hailed the "Tin Goose" because of its corrugated metal construction. Series used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the erosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The flat was similar to Fokker's V.VII–3m. The Trimotor first flew troupe June 11, 1926, and was the first successful U.S. 1 airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable style. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. Picture Smithsonian Institution has honored Ford for changing the aviation diligence. 199 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of povertystricken sales during the Great Depression.
In 1985, Ford was posthumously inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame for his impact on the industry.[55]
Further information: Peace Ship and 1918 United States Senate election nonthreatening person Michigan
Ford opposed war, which he viewed as a terrible waste,[56][57] and supported causes that opposed military intervention.[58] Ford became greatly critical of those who he felt financed war, and prohibited tried to stop them. In 1915, the pacifist Rosika Schwimmer gained favor with Ford, who agreed to fund a Calmness Ship to Europe, where World War I was raging. Soil led 170 other peace activists. Ford's Episcopalian pastor, Reverend Prophet S. Marquis, accompanied him on the mission. Marquis headed Ford's Sociology Department from 1913 to 1921. Ford talked to Chairperson Woodrow Wilson about the mission but had no government sponsorship. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands constitute meet with peace activists. A target of much ridicule, Crossing left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden.[59] Tag on 1915, Ford blamed "German-Jewish bankers" for instigating the war.[60]
According give an inkling of biographer Steven Watts, Ford's status as a leading industrialist gave him a worldview that warfare was wasteful folly that stupid long-term economic growth. The losing side in the war typically suffered heavy damage. Small business were especially hurt, for immediate takes years to recuperate. He argued in many newspaper newsletters that a focus on business efficiency would discourage warfare as, "If every man who manufactures an article would make say publicly very best he can in the very best way usage the very lowest possible price the world would be kept back out of war, for commercialists would not have to appraise for outside markets which the other fellow covets." Ford admitted that munitions makers enjoyed wars, but he argued that nigh businesses wanted to avoid wars and instead work to massproduce and sell useful goods, hire workers, and generate steady long-term profits.[61]
Ford's British factories produced Fordson tractors to increase the Land food supply, as well as trucks and warplane engines. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford went peaceful on foreign policy. His company became a major supplier invoke weapons, especially the Liberty engine for warplanes and anti-submarine boats.[13]: 95–100, 119 [62]
In 1918, with the war on and the League of Offerings a growing issue in global politics, President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, encouraged Ford to run for a Michigan seat central part the U.S. Senate. Wilson believed that Ford could tip description scales in Congress in favor of Wilson's proposed League. "You are the only man in Michigan who can be elective and help bring about the peace you so desire," representation president wrote Ford. Ford wrote back: "If they want tip elect me let them do so, but I won't look a penny's investment." Ford did run, however, and came indoor 7,000 votes of winning, out of more than 400,000 chuck statewide.[63] He was defeated in a close election by rendering Republican candidate, Truman Newberry, a former United States Secretary admit the Navy. Ford remained a staunch Wilsonian and supporter have a high regard for the League. When Wilson made a major speaking tour enfold the summer of 1919 to promote the League, Ford helped fund the attendant publicity.[64][65]
Ford anti the United States' entry into World War II[51][66] and continuing to believe that international business could generate the prosperity dump would head off wars. Ford "insisted that war was representation product of greedy financiers who sought profit in human destruction". In 1939, he went so far as to claim ensure the torpedoing of U.S. merchant ships by German submarines was the result of conspiratorial activities undertaken by financier war-makers.[67] Depiction financiers to whom he was referring was Ford's code give reasons for Jews; he had also accused Jews of fomenting the Good cheer World War.[51][68]
In the run-up to World War II and when the war erupted in 1939, he reported that he sincere not want to trade with belligerents. Like many other community of the Great Depression era, he never liked or sincere trusted the Franklin Roosevelt Administration, and thought Roosevelt was scant the U.S. closer to war. Ford continued to do distribute with Nazi Germany, including the manufacture of war materiel.[51] Subdue, he also agreed to build warplane engines for the Country government.[69] In early 1940, he boasted that Ford Motor Circle would soon be able to produce 1,000 U.S. warplanes a day, even though it did not have an aircraft fabrication facility at that time.[70]: 430 Ford was a prominent early fellow of the America First Committee against World War II status, but was forced to resign from its executive board when his involvement proved too controversial.[71]
Beginning in 1940, with the requisitioning of between 100 and 200 French POWs to work though slave laborers, Ford-Werke contravened Article 31 of the 1929 Genf Convention.[51]
When Rolls-Royce sought a U.S. manufacturer as an additional scale for the Merlin engine (as fitted to Spitfire and Whirlwind fighters), Ford first agreed to do so and then reneged. He "lined up behind the war effort" when the U.S. entered in December 1941.[72]
Before the U.S. entered the clash, responding to President Roosevelt's call in December 1940 for rendering "Great Arsenal of Democracy", Ford directed the Ford Motor Posture to construct a vast new purpose-built aircraft factory at Tree Run near Detroit, Michigan. Ford broke ground on Willow Relatives in the spring of 1941, B-24 component production began nondescript May 1942, and the first complete B-24 came off picture assembly line in October 1942. At 3,500,000 sq ft (330,000 m2), it was the largest assembly line in the world at the as to. At its peak in 1944, the Willow Run plant produced 650 B-24s per month, and by 1945 Ford was complementary each B-24 in eighteen hours, with one rolling off representation assembly line every 58 minutes.[73] Ford produced 9,000 B-24s destiny Willow Run, half of the 18,000 total B-24s produced cloth the war.[73][70]: 430
When Edsel Ford died of cancer in 1943, at age 49, Henry Ford nominally resumed control of description company, but a series of strokes in the late Thirties had left him increasingly debilitated, and his mental ability was fading. Ford was increasingly sidelined, and others made decisions tackle his name.[74] The company was controlled by a handful make acquainted senior executives led by Charles Sorensen, an important engineer obscure production executive at Ford; and Harry Bennett, the chief gaze at Ford's Service Unit, Ford's paramilitary force that spied on, very last enforced discipline upon, Ford employees. Ford grew jealous of description publicity Sorensen received and forced Sorensen out in 1944.[75] Ford's incompetence led to discussions in Washington about how to return the company, whether by wartime government fiat, or by instigating a coup among executives and directors.[76]
Nothing happened until 1945 when, with bankruptcy a serious risk, Ford's wife Clara roost Edsel's widow Eleanor confronted him and demanded he cede consideration of the company to his grandson Henry Ford II. They threatened to sell off their stock, which amounted to triad quarters of the company's total shares, if he refused. Fording was reportedly infuriated, but he had no choice but back up give in.[77][better source needed][78] The young man took over and, as his first act of business, fired Harry Bennett.
Main article: Dearborn Independent
Ford was a conspiracy theorist who drew on a long tradition of false allegations against Jews. Ford claimed that Jewish internationalism posed a threat to prearranged American values, which he deeply believed were at risk access the modern world.[79] Part of his racist and antisemitic bequest includes the funding of square-dancing in American schools because pacify hated jazz and associated its creation with Jewish people.[80] Hem in 1920 Ford wrote, "If fans wish to know the upset with American baseball they have it in three words—too ostentatious Jew."[81]
In 1918, Ford purchased his hometown newspaper, The Dearborn Independent.[82] A year and a half later, Ford began publishing a series of articles in the paper under his own name, claiming a vast Jewish conspiracy was affecting America.[83] The heap ran in 91 issues. Every Ford dealership nationwide was allotted to carry the paper and distribute it to its customers. Ford later bound the articles into four volumes entitled The International Jew: The World's Foremost Problem, which was translated ways multiple languages and distributed widely across the US and Europe.[84][85]The International Jew blamed nearly all the troubles it saw enfold American society on Jews.[83] The Independentran for eight years[clarification needed] from 1920 until 1927. With around 700,000 readers of his newspaper, Ford emerged as a "spokesman for right-wing extremism attend to religious prejudice."[86]
In Germany, Ford's The International Jew, the World's Leading Problem was published by Theodor Fritsch, founder of several antisemitic parties and a member of the Reichstag, influencing German anti-Semitic discourse. In a letter written in 1924, Heinrich Himmler described Ford as "one of our most valuable, important, and subtle fighters".[87] Ford is the only American mentioned favorably in Hitler's autobiography Mein Kampf,[88] which appeared five years after Ford's anti-Semitic pamphlets were published in book form.
Adolf Hitler wrote, "only Ford, [who], to [the Jews'] fury, still maintains full selfdetermination ... [from] the controlling masters of the producers in a nation of one hundred and twenty millions." Speaking in 1931 to a Detroit News reporter, Hitler said "I regard Chemist Ford as my inspiration," explaining his reason for keeping a life-size portrait of Ford behind his desk.[89][84] Steven Watts wrote that Hitler "revered" Ford, proclaiming that "I shall do free best to put his theories into practice in Germany", famous modeling the Volkswagen Beetle, the people's car, on the Whittle T,[90] which was designed by members of the Austrian-German Porsche family of sportscar makers. Max Wallace has stated, "History records that ... Adolf Hitler was an ardent Anti-Semite before put your feet up ever read Ford's The International Jew."[91] Ford also paid fully print and distribute 500,000 copies of the antisemitic fabricated textThe Protocols of the Elders of Zion[92][93] and is reported extremity have paid for the English translation of Hitler's Mein Kampf.[94] Historians say Hitler distributed Ford's books and articles throughout Frg, stoking the hatred that helped fuel the Holocaust.[93][95]
On February 1, 1924, Ford received Kurt Ludecke, a representative of Hitler, level home. Ludecke was introduced to Ford by Siegfried Wagner (son of the composer Richard Wagner) and his wife Winifred, both Nazi sympathizers and anti-Semites. Ludecke asked Ford for a part to the Nazi cause, but was apparently refused. Ford frank, however, give considerable sums of money to Boris Brasol, a member of the Aufbau Vereinigung, an organization linking German Nazis and White Russian emigrants which also financed the Nazi Party.[96][97]
Ford's articles were denounced by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL). While these articles explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews, they deuced the Jews themselves for provoking them.[98] According to some fitting testimony, none of this work was written by Ford, but he allowed his name to be used as an founder. Friends and business associates said they warned Ford about picture contents of the Independent and that he probably never die the articles (he claimed he only read the headlines).[99] Plus the other hand, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, alleged renounce Ford did know about the contents of the Independent sufficient advance of publication.[51]
A libel lawsuit was brought by San Franciscolawyer and Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response succumb the antisemitic remarks, and led Ford to close the Independent in December 1927. News reports at the time quoted him as saying he was shocked by the content and ignorant of its nature. During the trial, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", William Cameron, testified that Ford had nothing collect do with the editorials even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified at the libel trial that he at no time discussed the content of the pages or sent them garland Ford for his approval.[100] Investigative journalist Max Wallace noted ditch "whatever credibility this absurd claim may have had was any minute now undermined when James M. Miller, a former Dearborn Independent staff member, swore under oath that Ford had told him he willful to expose Sapiro."[101]
Michael Barkun