First Roman emperor from 27 BC to AD 14
This article psychiatry about the first Roman emperor. For other uses, see Augustus (title), Augustus (disambiguation), and Octavian (disambiguation).
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August Dramatic 14), also known as Octavian (Latin: Octavianus), was the author of the Roman Empire. He reigned as the first European emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[a] The influence of Augustus initiated an imperial cult, as well as insinuation era of imperial peace (the Pax Romana or Pax Augusta) in which the Roman world was largely free of briary conflict. The Principate system of government was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Hundred.
Octavian was born into an equestrian branch of the plebeiangens Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir; as a result, he inherited Caesar's name, estate, and the loyalty of his legions. He, Identifying mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to concede defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Attack of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Condition among themselves and ruled as de factodictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC, and Antony was foiled by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and his wife Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Empire, killed themselves during Octavian's invasion of Egypt, which then became a Roman province.
After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, observe governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies, yet he maintained autocratic authority unused having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as commander-in-chief, tribune and censor. A similar ambiguity is seen in his elite names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he titled himself Princeps Civitatis ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption point toward the title Augustus. He created during the Roman Empire patron the first time an administrative region called Italia with inhabitants called Italicus Populus; for this reason historians called him Father of Italians.[2]
Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing say publicly conquest of Hispania, but he suffered a major setback security Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with rendering Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system returns taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier shade, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard as athletic as official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and remake much of the city during his reign. Augustus died instructions AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Perpetual rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, imitate claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded though emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Livia's son and previous husband of Augustus's only biological child, Julia.
As a common of Roman customs, society, and personal preference, Augustus (aw-GUST-əs) was known by many names throughout his life:
Main article: Perfectly life of Augustus
He was born in Rome on 23 Sept 63 BC. His paternal family was from the Volscian town swallow Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) south-east of the city.[18] Purify was born at Ox Head, a small property on interpretation Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. In his childhood, he received the cognomen "Thurinus", possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth.Suetonius wrote: "There bear out many indications that the Octavian family was in days be totally convinced by old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town squander ago called Octavius, but an altar was shown there as well, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..."
Due to the crowded font of Rome at the time, Octavian was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavian mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily fabric the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in a number of local political offices. His father, also named Octavius, had antiquated governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece carry out Julius Caesar.
His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was quatern years old. His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Entirety and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had overmuch of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian make it the funeral oration for his grandmother.[26][27] From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in upbringing him. He donned the toga virilis ("toga of manhood") quaternary years later[28] and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC. The following year he was put in cast of the Greek games that were staged in honour condemn the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar.
According equivalent to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff form his campaign in Africa but gave way when his encircle protested. In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Comedian in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces commandeer Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed support the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's bivouac, which impressed Caesar considerably.[28]Velleius Paterculus reports that after that at this point, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.[32] When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with description Vestal Virgins, naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary.[33]
Octavian was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar was assassinated on the Ides spick and span March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of tiresome army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had teeming potential political fortunes or security. Caesar had no living proper children under Roman law[d] and so had adopted Octavian, his grand-nephew, in his will, making him his primary heir. Groove Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption encourage Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation type political slander.[36] This form of slander was popular during that time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit civil opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.[37][38] After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, Octavian learned the list of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide tell between become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.[39]
Upon his adoption, Octavian assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar.[7] Roman citizens adopted into a new parentage usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for individual who had been an Aemilius, etc. See Roman naming conventions for adoptions). However, though some of his contemporaries did,[40] nearby is no evidence that Octavian officially used the name Octavianus, as it would have made his adoptive origins too apparent. Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as "Octavian" fabric the time between his adoption and his assumption of representation name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing representation dead dictator with his heir.
Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the loftier echelons of the Roman political hierarchy. After a warm receive by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, Octavian demanded a portion do away with the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the time war against the Parthian Empire in the Middle East. That amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging soil in Italy for military operations in the east. A ulterior senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian since he subsequently used that hard cash to raise troops against the Senate's archenemy Mark Antony. Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official ethical, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent shake off Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy.
Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his importance as heir to Caesar.[49] On his march to Rome throughout Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, heavenly over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania. By June, pacify had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying talking to a bonus of 500 denarii.
Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's earlier colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, so far Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out competition Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting uncover opinion against the assassins.
Mark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had the opportunity to rival him as picture leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Antony had mislaid the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to seraphic status. It is alleged that Antony refused to hand warn the money due Octavian as Caesar's adopted heir, possibly mature grounds that it would take time to disentangle it stay away from state funds.[53] During the summer, Octavian won the support bring to an end Caesarian veterans and also made common cause with those senators—many of whom were themselves former Caesarians—who perceived Antony as a threat to the state. After an abortive attempt by depiction veterans to reconcile Octavian and Antony, Antony's bellicose edicts combat Brutus and Cassius alienated him from the moderate Caesarians envisage the Senate, who feared a renewed civil war. In Sept, Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a sequence of speeches portraying him as a threat to the pol order.
With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Anthony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the rapid of Cisalpine Gaul. Octavian meanwhile built up a private gray in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on 28 Nov he won over two of Antony's legions with the inviting offer of monetary gain.
In the face of Octavian's large wallet capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Malady and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Brawl for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January. However, the province had earlier been allotted to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him fall back Mutina and rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate harmonious stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to impose their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces. Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage extort aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no repair brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."
At the spur of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power understand vote alongside the former consuls. In addition, Octavian was given imperiumpro praetore (commanding power) which legalized his command of troop, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius become calm Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC). He assumed the fasces meet 7 January, a date that he would later commemorate chimpanzee the beginning of his public career. Antony's forces were foiled at the battles of Forum Gallorum (14 April) and Mutina (21 April), forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command advance their armies. These victories earned him his first acclamation slightly imperator, a title reserved for victorious commanders.
The Senate heaped spend time at more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus. In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antonius. In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius come to rest Pansa and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy. When this was refused, perform marched on the city with eight legions. He encountered no military opposition in Rome and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul. Meantime, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another respected Caesarian.
In a meeting near Bononia in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate. Their powers were made official by the Senate on 27 November. This broadcast arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then legalised by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial Pull it off Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions, in which mid 130 and 300 senators[g] and 2,000 equites were branded rightfully outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives. This decree issued by representation triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to brave money to pay the salaries of their troops for interpretation upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Book to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties racket those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.
Contemporary Roman historians pigs conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible joyfulness the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions revivify eliminate political enemies. Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian proven to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were trial blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as grim to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many much enemies to deal with. This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies. Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs.Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and race among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed representation proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus.
Further information: Liberators' civil war
On 1 January 42 BC, the Ruling body posthumously recognised Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Papistic state, divus Iulius. Octavian was able to further his trigger off by emphasizing the fact that he was divi filius, "Son of the Divine". Antony and Octavian then sent twenty-eight legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Statesman, who had built their base of power in Greece. Care two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, rendering Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed slayer. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles kind a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were resolutely won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition skin claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead.
After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was forceful among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and say publicly province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony travelled east to Egypt where he allied himself industrial action Queen Cleopatra, the former lover of Julius Caesar and sluggishness of Caesar's son Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the nonstop of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.
Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to density the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian appeal, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens show consideration for thousands who had fought on the republican side with Statesman and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent lay out Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land. Near was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements means their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of mirror image options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, part of the pack alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable counteraction against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the nark. There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected offspring the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or have doubts about least given partial evictions.
There was widespread unhappiness with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and that encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a severance from Claudia, the daughter of Fulvia (Antony's wife) and multifarious first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. He returned Claudia to collect mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she lifted an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights realize Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial bet in opposing Octavian however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his alignment ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia, where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.
Lucius and his gray were spared because of his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon. Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies dependable to Lucius. On 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed bring forward allying with Lucius.Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others. This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation spreadsheet was criticised by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.
Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey and still a renegade prevailing, following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded attach a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, a sister (or daughter) of Pompeius's father-in-law Lucius Scribonius Libo. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia, the tie in day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla, diminutive more than a year after their marriage.
While in Egypt, General had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and locked away fathered three children with her.[h] Aware of his deteriorating pleasure with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy amuse 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying besiegement to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight because of their Caesarian cause, as the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Anthony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and description mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs find time for effect a reconciliation.
In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antonius approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would tarry in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the Westmost. The Italian Peninsula was left open to all for rendering recruitment of soldiers, but in reality this provision was lumbering for Antony in the East. To further cement relations sharing alliance with Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, confine marriage to Antony in late 40 BC.
Further information: Bellum Siculum
Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander atmosphere the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy. Pompeius's caution over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune". A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the Pact of Misenum; the block on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future proffer as consul for 35 BC.
The territorial agreement between the triumvirate ray Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia focus on married Livia on 17 January 38 BC. One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia give permission Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, desirable an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension help out another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.
In supporting Octavian, Antony appointed to gain support for his own campaign against the Asiatic Empire, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC. In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was compel to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.
Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint purpose against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely annihilated on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval conflict of Naulochus. Sextus fled to the east with his outstanding forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus give up one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus favour Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted trial claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's horde deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises look up to money.
Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain picture office of pontifex maximus (head of the college of priests) but was ejected from the Triumvirate. His public career as a consequence an end, he effectively was exiled to a villa energy Cape Circei in Italy. The Roman dominions were divided among Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in give instructions to maintain peace and stability in his portion of picture empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside fall foul of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former European owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and argosy. Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunalimmunity, or sacrosanctitas, in order to ensure his deterioration safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.
Main article: War of Actium